Monday, 26 September 2011

Class notes

Attrition – where material is moved along the bed of a river, collides with other material and breaks up into smaller, rounded pieces.

Corrasion – fine material rubs against the riverbank and bed. A sort of sandpapering action called abrasion wears the bank and bed away.

Corrosion – some rocks forming the banks and bed of a river are dissolved by acids in the water e.g. limestone. The rocks are then eroded.

Hydraulic action – the sheer force of turbulent water hitting the banks of the river can cause joints to be enlarged or loose fragments of rock to be swept away.


Transportation by Rivers:

• Traction – where large rocks and boulders roll or slide along the riverbed.
• Saltation – where smaller stones are bounced along the riverbed in a leap frogging motion.
• Suspension – where very small grains of sand or silt are carried along with the water.
• Solution – where some material is dissolved (like sugar in a cup of tea) and is carried downstream.

Page 5a - Weathering (found in River Processes booklet)

1.
a) Freeze-thaw weathering
b) Its mean annual rainfall is around 1100 mm and its mean annual temperature is around -11
c) Chemical weathering
d) Chemical weathering

2.
a) Freeze-thaw weathering is a type of weathering that effects the planets structure for example big rocks that have small cracks collect water in-between, freeze-thaw weathering freezes the water between and brakes the rocks apart.
b) Below freezing environments
c) because there is barely any water and the mean annual temperature does not reach freezing point or below.
d) A layer of rocky particles called Regolith.

3.
a) Chemical weathering is a type of weathering that changes the composition of rocks, often transforming them when water interacts with minerals to create various chemical reactions.
b) A full of rain yet hot environment.
c) Because there is no water to react with the minerals and because its not hot enough to react anyway.
d) Images below in order: Limestone, Granite and chalk



Thursday, 22 September 2011

Notes on weathering

Speed of weathering: depends upon the structure and mineral composition of the rocks, climate, vegetation, human influences and the time over which the weathering process operates.
The end product is a layer of rocky particles called Regolith.


Different types of Weathering

Freeze thaw:
Where does it occur?
In mountainous regions like the Alps or Snowdonia.

How does it occur?
Rainwater or snow-melt collects in cracks in the rocks.

At night the temperatures drops and the water freezes and expands.

The increases in volume of the ice exerts pressure on the cracks in the rock, causing them to split further open.

During the day the ice melts and the water seeps deeper into the cracks.

At night the water freezes again….etc.

Onion skin:
rock is repeatedly subjected to heat and cold
outer layer expands in heat
outer layer contracts in cold
outer layer of rock peels off (loose rock known as scree)

Biological:
Animals and plants can wear away rocks. This is called biological weathering. For example, burrowing animals such as rabbits can burrow into a crack in a rock, making it bigger and splitting the rock.

You may have seen weeds growing through cracks in the pavement. If you have gone for a walk in the countryside, you may even have seen bushes or trees growing from cracks in rocks or disused buildings. This is because plant roots can grow in cracks. As they grow bigger, the roots push open the cracks and make them wider and deeper. Eventually pieces of rock may fall away.

People can even cause biological weathering just by walking. Over time, paths in the countryside become damaged because of all the boots and shoes wearing them away.

Chemical:
Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks, often transforming them when water interacts with minerals to create various chemical reactions. Chemical weathering is a gradual and ongoing process as the mineralogy of the rock adjusts to the near surface environment. New or secondary minerals develop from the original minerals of the rock. In this the processes of oxidation and hydrolysis are most important.
The process of mountain block uplift is important in exposing new rock strata to the atmosphere and moisture, enabling important chemical weathering to occur; significant release occurs of Ca++ and other minerals into surface waters.

Thursday, 8 September 2011

Kobe

On Tuesday, January 17th 1995, at 5.46 a.m. (local time), an earthquake of magnitude 7.2 on the Richter Scale struck the Kobe region of south-central Japan. This region is the second most populated and industrialized area after Tokyo, with a total population of about 10 million people. The ground shook for only about 20 seconds but in that short time, over 5,000 people died, over 300,000 people became homeless and damage worth an estimated £100 billion was caused to roads, houses, factories and infrastructure (gas, electric, water, sewerage, phone cables, etc).

Why did the earthquake happen here?
Three crustal plates meet near to the coast of Japan. Close to Kobe, the denser oceanic Philippines Plate is being subducted beneath the lighter continental Eurasian Plate at a rate of about 10 centimetres per year. The Japanese island arc has been formed from the molten magma released by the melting Philippines Plate. Earthquakes are very common here and happen because of the friction resulting from the two plates colliding along this destructive margin. [In 1923, the Great Kanto Earthquake killed 140,000 people in this area.] The great destruction which resulted from the 1995 Kobe Earthquake was due to the shallow depth of the focus which was only about 16 kms. below the surface and the fact that the epicentre occurred close to a very heavily populated area. Seismic shockwaves travelled from Awaji Island (the epicentre) along the Nojima Fault to the cities of Kobe and Osaka.




The Effects of the Earthquake:
The immediate effects of the earthquake are known as primary effects. They include the collapse of buildings, bridges and roads resulting from the seismic waves shaking the crust. During the 20 second earthquake, the ground moved up to 50 centimetres horizontally and up to 1 metre vertically. Some of the deaths were caused by these primary effects.
The secondary effects include the fires that broke out all over the city of Kobe, the congestion and chaos on the roads, the closure of businesses and the problem of homelessness. Many more people died in the fires that followed the earthquake. Problems were made worse by the large number of aftershocks (over 1,300).

Many of the older, wooden houses completely collapsed. Fire, triggered by broken gas pipes and sparks from severed electrical cables, caused a huge amount of damage, destroying at least 7,500 wooden homes. Office blocks built in the 1960's of steel and concrete frequently collapsed in the middle so that a whole floor was crushed but the rooms above and below remained intact. Modern buildings, designed to be earthquake proof, did quite well on the whole and suffered little damage, although some were left standing at an angle when the ground beneath them liquefied. An additional problem for rebuilding was that most people were not covered by insurance due to the difficulties of insuring such an earthquake prone area.





Almost 300,000 people were made homeless by the earthquake and had to be given emergency shelter. The severe winter weather (-2°C.) made this a serious problem. People were put into schools, town halls, open parks, etc. and were forced to live, in some cases for long periods, in overcrowded, unsanitary conditions. Food, blankets, medical supplies and clean water were, for the first few days, in short supply. The scale of the problem made it difficult for the authorities to cope.

Kobe is an important route centre. It has motorway (Hanshin Expressway) and intercity ('bullet train') railway lines passing through it and a large modern port which handles millions of tonnes of trade each year. The earthquake caused massive damage to all the transport facilities. Several sections of motorway, many of which were built above the ground on tall concrete stilts, collapsed or toppled sideways. This resulted in the Hanshin Expressway being completely closed. Railway lines were buckled and many stations damaged. A 130 kilometre section of the 'bullet train' rail network had to be closed. At the port, cranes tilted or fell and 120 (out of 150) quays where ships were moored were destroyed. Port buildings and their contents were badly damaged in many places.
Between 3% and 5% of Japan’s industry is located in and around Kobe. This includes most types of industry - from light manufacturing to high-technology and heavy industry. Due to the shortage of suitable flat land, as elsewhere in Japan, much of the industry is concentrated near the port on reclaimed land. Strong ground movements led to settlement and liquefaction in these areas and so damage to industry was severe. The difficulties of transporting raw materials and finished goods to, from, and within the region also caused great problems for well-known industries such as Panasonic and Mitsubishi. Industries affected include shipbuilding, steelworks, breweries, pharmaceutical, computer hardware and consumer goods firms.
How did the authorities cope with the earthquake?
Japan prides itself on being well prepared for earthquakes. Most new buildings and roads have, in the last 20 years, been designed to be earthquake proof, schools and factories have regular earthquake drills, etc. As it turned out, however, things did not go according to plan. Many older buildings still collapsed or caught fire. This led to many blocked roads and massive problems of homelessness. Telephones and other communication services were put out of action making communication slow and difficult. Electricity and water supplies were badly damaged over large areas. This meant no power for heating, lights, cooking, etc. Clean, fresh water was in short supply until April 1995. The government and city authorities were criticised for being slow to rescue people and for refusing offers of help from other countries. Many people had to sleep in cars or tents in cold winter conditions. A large number of the people affected were elderly and many of the effects are unquantifiable - disrupted schooling, increased unemployment, worry, stress and mental fatigue. Putting things right after the earthquake
• water, electricity, gas, telephone services were fully working by July 1995
• The railways were back in service by August 1995
• A year after the earthquake, 80% of the port was working but the Hanshin Expressway was still closed.
• By January 1999, 134,000 housing units had been constructed but some people were still having to live in temporary accommodation.
• New laws were passed to make buildings and transport structures even more earthquake proof.
• More instruments were installed in the area to monitor earthquake movements.
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Japan's Recent Earthquake

Monday, 5 September 2011

Thursday, 1 September 2011

Mount Merapi - 'Mountain of Fire'

At least 64 people have been killed in the latest eruption of Indonesia's Mount Merapi volcano - more than doubling the death toll since it became active again last week.

Dozens are being treated for burns and respiratory problems after a gas cloud hit villages with even greater force than the previous eruptions.

More than 100 people are now said to have been killed.

An estimated 75,000 residents have been evacuated from the area.

Mount Merapi, one of the world's most active volcanoes, is located in a densely populated area in central Java.

The latest eruption began late on Thursday, sending residents streaming down the mountain with ash-covered faces.

Continue reading the main story

Start Quote

We're totally overwhelmed here”

Heru Nugroho
Hospital spokesman
Rescue workers said villages in the area were in flames.

Indonesia contains more active volcanoes than any other country on Earth. Of the 130 active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi on the Island of Java is the most active. In fact, so active that annual offerings are made by the Javanese people to this volcano to placate its restless spirit. This conical stratovolcano's name, Merapi, is very appropriate as it means "Mountain of Fire". Typically Mount Merapi becomes active every two to three years, but large eruptions occur only every 10-15 years. In the past 500 years 68 large eruptions have been recorded. The most notable of these eruptions were in 1006, 1786, 1822 and 1872 when many people died. The lava flows, once basaltic, have in historical times become andesitic.

The present danger is increased because Mount Merapi is close to the city of Yogyakarta, a city of 0.5 milion people, and also thousands of people live almost on top ofthe volcano in villages as high up as 1700 m. A large eruption can therefore have devastating effects. In 1930 the eruption destroyed 13 villages and killed 1400 people in pyroclastic flows.