Alternative fuels, known as non-conventional or advanced fuels, are any materials or substances that can be used as fuels, other than conventional fuels. Conventional fuels include: fossil fuels (petroleum (oil), coal, propane, and natural gas), as well as nuclear materials such as uranium and thorium, as well as artificial radioisotope fuels that are made in nuclear reactors, and store their energy.
Some well-known alternative fuels include biodiesel, bioalcohol (methanol, ethanol, butanol), chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen, non-fossil methane, non-fossil natural gas, vegetable oil, and other biomass sources.
Traditional vehicle fuels petrol and diesel are, of course, produced from oil, whereas alternative fuels come from a variety of sources. Oil has a couple of key disadvantages, not least the fact that it is in limited supply and takes millions of years to be produced. There are also environmental considerations as fossil fuels release large amounts of harmful greenhouse gases. It is therefore important to look at alternative fuel today in order to better protect the environment and to replace the diminishing oil supplies.
Alternative fuel covers a number of options which are listed below and more details on which can be found on other pages of this site. Most of the options for alternative fuels are not derived from fossil fuels.
Biodiesel - Produced from the oil of crops such as rapeseed or from waste cooking oils. This results in a significant reduction in carbon emissions.
Bioethanol - Produced from starch plants such as corn, sugar plants or trees.
Biogas - A mixture of methane and carbon dioxide from landfill sites or produced using anaerobic digestion. This results in a 60% reduction in carbon emissions.
Fuel cell - A fuel cell uses hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity.
LPG - A blend of propane and butane produced from oil refining and methane gas fields. This has slightly higher carbon emissions than diesel but 80% lower nitrous oxide emissions.
Natural Gas - Mainly methane extracted from oil and gas fields. This has a 5% reduction in carbon emissions compared to diesel and 80% lower nitrous oxide emissions.
Pure Plant Oil - produced by crushing and filtering crops such as rapeseed. It is thought that carbon emissions from well to wheel will be slightly lower than those for diesel.
Appropriate technology is an ideological movement (and its manifestations) originally articulated as "intermediate technology" by the economist Dr. Ernst Friedrich "Fritz" Schumacher in his influential work, Small is Beautiful. Though the nuances of appropriate technology vary between fields and applications, it is generally recognized as encompassing technological choice and application that is small-scale, labor-intensive, energy-efficient, environmentally sound, and locally controlled. Both Schumacher and many modern-day proponents of appropriate technology also emphasize the technology as people-centered.
Appropriate technology is most commonly discussed in its relationship to economic development and as an alternative to transfers of capital-intensive technology from industrialized nations to developing countries.
Appropriate technology has been used to address issues in a wide range of fields. Well-known examples of appropriate technology applications include: bike- and hand-powered water pumps (and other self-powered equipment), the universal nut sheller, self-contained solar-powered light bulbs and streetlights, and passive solar building designs. Today appropriate technology is often developed using open source principles, which have led to open-source appropriate technology (OSAT) and thus many of the plans of the technology can be freely found on the Internet.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES!
appropriate technology - brings technology to poor villages and can transform lives due to it being sustainable and no one needing to be dependent on lare companies
SOLAR ENERGY
WIND ENERGY
Monday 26 March 2012
Thursday 22 March 2012
renewable and NON renewable resources
Powerpoint:
http://www.childrensuniversity.manchester.ac.uk/interactives/science/energy/renewable.asp
PDF:
http://www.childrensuniversity.manchester.ac.uk/interactives/science/energy/discovermore/renewable.pdf
What are the sources of energy?
Energy are broadly classifies into two main groups: renewable and Non-renewable.
Renewable Energy
Renewable energy is energy which is generated from natural sources i.e. sun, wind, rain, tides and can be generated again and again as and when required. They are available in plenty and by far most the cleanest sources of energy available on this planet. For eg: Energy that we receive from the sun can be used to generate electricity. Similarly, energy from wind, geothermal, biomass from plants, tides can be used this form of energy to another form.
Here are some of the pros and cons of using renewable sources of energy:-
Pros
The sun, wind, geothermal, ocean energy are available in the abundant quantity and free to use.
The non-renewable sources of energy that we are using are limited and are bound to expire one day.
Renewable sources have low carbon emissions, therefore they are considered as green and environment friendly.
Renewable helps in stimulating the economy and creating job opportunities. The money that is used to build these plants can provide jobs to thousands to lakhs of people.
You don't have to rely on any third country for the supply of renewable sources as in case of non-renewable sources.
Renewable sources can cost less than consuming the local electrical supply. In the long run, the prices of electricity are expected to soar since they are based on the prices of crude oil, so renewable sources can cut your electricity bills.
Various tax incentives in the form of tax waivers, credit deductions are available for individuals and businesses who want to go green.
Cons
It is not easy to set up a plant as the initial costs are quite steep.
Solar energy can be used during the day time and not during night or rainy season.
Geothermal energy which can be used to generate electricity has side effects too. It can bring toxic chemicals beneath the earth surface onto the top and can create environmental changes.
Hydroelectric provide pure form of energy but building dams across the river which is quite expensive can affect natural flow and affect wildlife.
To use wind energy, you have to rely on strong winds therefore you have to choose suitable site to operate them. Also, they can affect bird population as they are quite high.
Non-Renewable Energy
Non-Renewable energy is energy which is taken from the sources that are available on the earth in limited quantity and will vanish fifty-sixty years from now. Non-renewable sources are not environmental friendly and can have serious affect on our health. They are called non-renewable because they cannot be re-generated within a short span of time. Non-renewable sources exist in the form of fossil fuels, natural gas, oil and coal.
Here are some of the pros and cons of using non-renewable sources of energy:-
Pros
Non-renewable sources are cheap and easy to use. You can easily fill up your car tank and power your motor vehicle.
You can use small amount of nuclear energy to produce large amount of power.
Non-renewable have little or no competition at all. For eg: if you are driving a battery driven car your battery gets discharged then you won't be able to charge it in the middle if the road rather it is easy to find a gas pumping station.
They are considered as cheap when converting from one type of energy to another.
Cons
Non-renewable sources will expire some day and we have to us our endangered resources to create more non-renewable sources of energy.
The speed at which such resources are being utilized can have serious environmental changes.
Non-renewable sources release toxic gases in the air when burnt which are the major cause for global warming.
Since these sources are going to expire soon, prices of these sources are soaring day by day.
Why should we conserve energy?
Energy needs to be conserved to protect our environment from drastic changes, to save the depleting resources for our future generations. The rate at which the energy is being produced and consumed can damage our world in many ways. In other words, it helps us to save the environment. We can reduce those impacts by consuming less energy. The cost of energy is rising every year. It is important for us to realize how energy is useful to us and how can we avoid it getting wasted.
To start saving energy is not a big thing at all. We can start saving the energy from our home itself, just by turning off the lights during day hours, washing clothes in cold water or using public transport instead of using our own vehicle and later can implement these things on much wider scale at society level, then at city level then district level and finally at country level. You might notice a small change in your monthly bills by implementing these changes as they would be getting decreased more and more. With so many alternatives and so many techniques about there, if millions of people like us start doing these things, it will help us to save much more money and also help the environment.
A non-renewable resource is a natural resource which cannot be produced, grown, generated, or used on a scale which can sustain its consumption rate, once depleted there is no more available for future needs. Also considered non-renewable are resources that are consumed much faster than nature can create them. Fossil fuels (such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas), nuclear power (uranium) and certain aquifers are examples. In contrast, resources such as timber (when harvested sustainably) or metals (which can be recycled) are considered renewable resources.
Fossil fuel:
A temporary oil drilling rig in Western Australia
Further information: Oil depletion
Natural resources such as coal, petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas take thousands of years to form naturally and cannot be replaced as fast as they are being consumed. Eventually natural resources will become too costly to harvest and humanity will need to find other sources of energy.
At present, the main energy source used by humans are non-renewable fossil fuels, as a result of continual use since the first internal combustion engine in the 17th century, the fuel is still in high demand with conventional infrastructure and transport which are fitted with the combustion engine. The continual use of fossil fuels at the current rate will increase global warming and cause more severe climate change.
Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). About 16% of global final energy consumption comes from renewables, with 10% coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from hydroelectricity. New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) accounted for another 3% and are growing very rapidly. The share of renewables in electricity generation is around 19%, with 16% of global electricity coming from hydroelectricity and 3% from new renewables.
Renewable sources:
Wind power
Hydropower
Solar energy
Biomass
Biofuel
Geothermal energy
http://www.childrensuniversity.manchester.ac.uk/interactives/science/energy/renewable.asp
PDF:
http://www.childrensuniversity.manchester.ac.uk/interactives/science/energy/discovermore/renewable.pdf
What are the sources of energy?
Energy are broadly classifies into two main groups: renewable and Non-renewable.
Renewable Energy
Renewable energy is energy which is generated from natural sources i.e. sun, wind, rain, tides and can be generated again and again as and when required. They are available in plenty and by far most the cleanest sources of energy available on this planet. For eg: Energy that we receive from the sun can be used to generate electricity. Similarly, energy from wind, geothermal, biomass from plants, tides can be used this form of energy to another form.
Here are some of the pros and cons of using renewable sources of energy:-
Pros
The sun, wind, geothermal, ocean energy are available in the abundant quantity and free to use.
The non-renewable sources of energy that we are using are limited and are bound to expire one day.
Renewable sources have low carbon emissions, therefore they are considered as green and environment friendly.
Renewable helps in stimulating the economy and creating job opportunities. The money that is used to build these plants can provide jobs to thousands to lakhs of people.
You don't have to rely on any third country for the supply of renewable sources as in case of non-renewable sources.
Renewable sources can cost less than consuming the local electrical supply. In the long run, the prices of electricity are expected to soar since they are based on the prices of crude oil, so renewable sources can cut your electricity bills.
Various tax incentives in the form of tax waivers, credit deductions are available for individuals and businesses who want to go green.
Cons
It is not easy to set up a plant as the initial costs are quite steep.
Solar energy can be used during the day time and not during night or rainy season.
Geothermal energy which can be used to generate electricity has side effects too. It can bring toxic chemicals beneath the earth surface onto the top and can create environmental changes.
Hydroelectric provide pure form of energy but building dams across the river which is quite expensive can affect natural flow and affect wildlife.
To use wind energy, you have to rely on strong winds therefore you have to choose suitable site to operate them. Also, they can affect bird population as they are quite high.
Non-Renewable Energy
Non-Renewable energy is energy which is taken from the sources that are available on the earth in limited quantity and will vanish fifty-sixty years from now. Non-renewable sources are not environmental friendly and can have serious affect on our health. They are called non-renewable because they cannot be re-generated within a short span of time. Non-renewable sources exist in the form of fossil fuels, natural gas, oil and coal.
Here are some of the pros and cons of using non-renewable sources of energy:-
Pros
Non-renewable sources are cheap and easy to use. You can easily fill up your car tank and power your motor vehicle.
You can use small amount of nuclear energy to produce large amount of power.
Non-renewable have little or no competition at all. For eg: if you are driving a battery driven car your battery gets discharged then you won't be able to charge it in the middle if the road rather it is easy to find a gas pumping station.
They are considered as cheap when converting from one type of energy to another.
Cons
Non-renewable sources will expire some day and we have to us our endangered resources to create more non-renewable sources of energy.
The speed at which such resources are being utilized can have serious environmental changes.
Non-renewable sources release toxic gases in the air when burnt which are the major cause for global warming.
Since these sources are going to expire soon, prices of these sources are soaring day by day.
Why should we conserve energy?
Energy needs to be conserved to protect our environment from drastic changes, to save the depleting resources for our future generations. The rate at which the energy is being produced and consumed can damage our world in many ways. In other words, it helps us to save the environment. We can reduce those impacts by consuming less energy. The cost of energy is rising every year. It is important for us to realize how energy is useful to us and how can we avoid it getting wasted.
To start saving energy is not a big thing at all. We can start saving the energy from our home itself, just by turning off the lights during day hours, washing clothes in cold water or using public transport instead of using our own vehicle and later can implement these things on much wider scale at society level, then at city level then district level and finally at country level. You might notice a small change in your monthly bills by implementing these changes as they would be getting decreased more and more. With so many alternatives and so many techniques about there, if millions of people like us start doing these things, it will help us to save much more money and also help the environment.
A non-renewable resource is a natural resource which cannot be produced, grown, generated, or used on a scale which can sustain its consumption rate, once depleted there is no more available for future needs. Also considered non-renewable are resources that are consumed much faster than nature can create them. Fossil fuels (such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas), nuclear power (uranium) and certain aquifers are examples. In contrast, resources such as timber (when harvested sustainably) or metals (which can be recycled) are considered renewable resources.
Fossil fuel:
A temporary oil drilling rig in Western Australia
Further information: Oil depletion
Natural resources such as coal, petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas take thousands of years to form naturally and cannot be replaced as fast as they are being consumed. Eventually natural resources will become too costly to harvest and humanity will need to find other sources of energy.
At present, the main energy source used by humans are non-renewable fossil fuels, as a result of continual use since the first internal combustion engine in the 17th century, the fuel is still in high demand with conventional infrastructure and transport which are fitted with the combustion engine. The continual use of fossil fuels at the current rate will increase global warming and cause more severe climate change.
Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). About 16% of global final energy consumption comes from renewables, with 10% coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from hydroelectricity. New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) accounted for another 3% and are growing very rapidly. The share of renewables in electricity generation is around 19%, with 16% of global electricity coming from hydroelectricity and 3% from new renewables.
Renewable sources:
Wind power
Hydropower
Solar energy
Biomass
Biofuel
Geothermal energy
Monday 19 March 2012
transnational company, newly industralised country
NIC:
http://www.slideshare.net/guest0edc68/newly-industrialised-countries
TNC:
http://www.grips.ac.jp/csids/perspectives/perspective03.pdf
http://www.slideshare.net/guest0edc68/newly-industrialised-countries
TNC:
http://www.grips.ac.jp/csids/perspectives/perspective03.pdf
Thursday 15 March 2012
INC
Multinational Companies:
Head off - MEDC
Branch Plants - LEDC
ADVANTAGES:
no tarrifs
cheap labour
health and safety is lower
incentives
raw material
DISADVANTAGES:
language/ culture
time zones
exchange rates
amount of skilled labour
safety
Head off - MEDC
Branch Plants - LEDC
ADVANTAGES:
no tarrifs
cheap labour
health and safety is lower
incentives
raw material
DISADVANTAGES:
language/ culture
time zones
exchange rates
amount of skilled labour
safety
Monday 12 March 2012
System of manufacturing
old system:
power supply - near by
new system:
power - national grid - plug in - socket (plug in)
FOOTLOOSE
PAGE 18C
1. metal, wheels, engine
2. due to high demand for resources and enables quicker production
b) due to low moving cost
c) so that they have room to produce the car and to expand
d) so that they get all areas of the production in the factory covered
HIGH TECH INDUSTRYS IN LEDC's
High Technology Industry
These icons indicate that teacher’s notes or useful web addresses are available in the Notes Page.
This icon indicates that the slide contains activities created in Flash. These activities are not editable.
For more detailed instructions, see the Getting Started presentation.
What is high-tech industry?
Where does high-tech industry locate?
What factors influence the location of high-tech industry?
What is a science park?
What pressures are created by the growth of high-tech industry?
High-technology industry
High-technology industry involves a highly-skilled workforce and its products require a high proportion of research and development.
High-technology industry is relatively footloose since access to raw materials is not very important. The ‘raw materials’ that are required are usually lightweight electronic components.
What is high-tech industry?
Where does high-tech industry locate?
What factors influence the location of high-tech industry?
What is a science park?
What pressures are created by the growth of high-tech industry?
High-technology industry
Where does high-tech industry locate?
The largest concentration of high-tech industries is found in Silicon Valley.
Silicon Valley is the nickname for the high-tech heartland of the United States. It is located between San Francisco and San Jose, California.
M4 Corridor
Cambridge and the M11 corridor
Where does high-tech industry locate in the UK?
High-tech industry in the UK
What is high-tech industry?
Where does high-tech industry locate?
What factors influence the location of high-tech industry?
What is a science park?
What pressures are created by the growth of high-tech industry?
High-technology industry
Bangalore has been called the Silicon Valley of India. Over 160,000 people are currently employed in the technology sector and this number is expected to exceed 200,000 in 2005, which will rival Silicon Valley.
Electronics City in Bangalore is India’s first science park. It is home to about 100 companies including Siemens, Hewlett Packard and Motorola. Infoys was the first Indian firm to float on the US Stock Exchange.
What is high-tech industry?
Where does high-tech industry locate?
What factors influence the location of high-tech industry?
What is a science park?
What pressures are created by the growth of high-tech industry?
Learning objectives
High-technology industry
A science park is a planned industrial complex which contains quaternary companies while a business park can also contain manufacturing companies.
Business park
Science park
What is a science park?
Cambridge Science Park
What is high-tech industry?
Where does high-tech industry locate?
What factors influence the location of high-tech industry?
What is a science park?
What pressures are created by the growth of high-tech industry?
Learning objectives
High-technology industry
Trinity College
Local residents in Milton
Logatech (a small high-tech company)
Greenworld (an environmental group)
Local farmer
Trinity and Trinity Hall are planning to develop a 22 acre plot to the west of their site. It will attract further high-tech industries to the area.
What pressures do you think will be created as a result? Decide what the viewpoints of the following will be:
Growth of high-tech industry
Growth of high-tech industry
Trinity College expansion proposals
Using map information only, give three reasons why a science park located at site A.
List two other factors that influence the location of science parks.
There are proposals to create a new science park at site B. Explain why some people may be against its development.
Study the map.
Examination question
High-technology industry
High technology industry involves a highly-skilled workforce and its products require a high proportion of research and development.
The largest concentration of high-tech industries can be found in Silicon Valley, USA. In the UK, the M4 corridor is an attractive location for high-tech industry.
Bangalore is the centre of high-tech industry in India.
High technology industry is relatively footloose.
Factors behind location include: a highly-skilled workforce, proximity to research centres and attractive environments.
A science park is a planned industrial complex which contains quaternary companies such as Cambridge Science Park.
The growth of the high-tech industry can bring advantages and disadvantages.
High-tech sectors
The sector approach classifies industries according their technology intensity, product approach according to finished products.
Aerospace
Artificial Intelligence
Biotechnology
Software
Electrical Engineering
Photonics
Nanotechnology
Nuclear Physics
Robotics
Telecommunications
High-tech industries
Further analysis from OECD has indicated that using research intensity as an industry classification indicator is also possible. The OECD does not only take the manufacturing but also the usage rate of technology into account.
power supply - near by
new system:
power - national grid - plug in - socket (plug in)
FOOTLOOSE
PAGE 18C
1. metal, wheels, engine
2. due to high demand for resources and enables quicker production
b) due to low moving cost
c) so that they have room to produce the car and to expand
d) so that they get all areas of the production in the factory covered
HIGH TECH INDUSTRYS IN LEDC's
High Technology Industry
These icons indicate that teacher’s notes or useful web addresses are available in the Notes Page.
This icon indicates that the slide contains activities created in Flash. These activities are not editable.
For more detailed instructions, see the Getting Started presentation.
What is high-tech industry?
Where does high-tech industry locate?
What factors influence the location of high-tech industry?
What is a science park?
What pressures are created by the growth of high-tech industry?
High-technology industry
High-technology industry involves a highly-skilled workforce and its products require a high proportion of research and development.
High-technology industry is relatively footloose since access to raw materials is not very important. The ‘raw materials’ that are required are usually lightweight electronic components.
What is high-tech industry?
Where does high-tech industry locate?
What factors influence the location of high-tech industry?
What is a science park?
What pressures are created by the growth of high-tech industry?
High-technology industry
Where does high-tech industry locate?
The largest concentration of high-tech industries is found in Silicon Valley.
Silicon Valley is the nickname for the high-tech heartland of the United States. It is located between San Francisco and San Jose, California.
M4 Corridor
Cambridge and the M11 corridor
Where does high-tech industry locate in the UK?
High-tech industry in the UK
What is high-tech industry?
Where does high-tech industry locate?
What factors influence the location of high-tech industry?
What is a science park?
What pressures are created by the growth of high-tech industry?
High-technology industry
Bangalore has been called the Silicon Valley of India. Over 160,000 people are currently employed in the technology sector and this number is expected to exceed 200,000 in 2005, which will rival Silicon Valley.
Electronics City in Bangalore is India’s first science park. It is home to about 100 companies including Siemens, Hewlett Packard and Motorola. Infoys was the first Indian firm to float on the US Stock Exchange.
What is high-tech industry?
Where does high-tech industry locate?
What factors influence the location of high-tech industry?
What is a science park?
What pressures are created by the growth of high-tech industry?
Learning objectives
High-technology industry
A science park is a planned industrial complex which contains quaternary companies while a business park can also contain manufacturing companies.
Business park
Science park
What is a science park?
Cambridge Science Park
What is high-tech industry?
Where does high-tech industry locate?
What factors influence the location of high-tech industry?
What is a science park?
What pressures are created by the growth of high-tech industry?
Learning objectives
High-technology industry
Trinity College
Local residents in Milton
Logatech (a small high-tech company)
Greenworld (an environmental group)
Local farmer
Trinity and Trinity Hall are planning to develop a 22 acre plot to the west of their site. It will attract further high-tech industries to the area.
What pressures do you think will be created as a result? Decide what the viewpoints of the following will be:
Growth of high-tech industry
Growth of high-tech industry
Trinity College expansion proposals
Using map information only, give three reasons why a science park located at site A.
List two other factors that influence the location of science parks.
There are proposals to create a new science park at site B. Explain why some people may be against its development.
Study the map.
Examination question
High-technology industry
High technology industry involves a highly-skilled workforce and its products require a high proportion of research and development.
The largest concentration of high-tech industries can be found in Silicon Valley, USA. In the UK, the M4 corridor is an attractive location for high-tech industry.
Bangalore is the centre of high-tech industry in India.
High technology industry is relatively footloose.
Factors behind location include: a highly-skilled workforce, proximity to research centres and attractive environments.
A science park is a planned industrial complex which contains quaternary companies such as Cambridge Science Park.
The growth of the high-tech industry can bring advantages and disadvantages.
High-tech sectors
The sector approach classifies industries according their technology intensity, product approach according to finished products.
Aerospace
Artificial Intelligence
Biotechnology
Software
Electrical Engineering
Photonics
Nanotechnology
Nuclear Physics
Robotics
Telecommunications
High-tech industries
Further analysis from OECD has indicated that using research intensity as an industry classification indicator is also possible. The OECD does not only take the manufacturing but also the usage rate of technology into account.
Monday 5 March 2012
Industry
Industrial sectors
Main article: Industrial organization
Further information: Industrial loan company
Clark's Sector Model (1950)
Farming- The secondary sector,involving refinery refining,construction,and manufacturing;The Tertiary sector,which deals with services (such as law and medicine) and distribution of manufactured goods;And the Quaternary sector, a relatively new type of knowledge industry focusing on technological R&D research,design and development such as computer programming, and biochemistry. A fifth, quinary, sector has been proposed encompassing nonprofit activities. The economy is also broadly separated into public sector and private sector, with industry generally categorized as private. Industries are also any business or manufacturing. Industries can be classified on the basis of raw materials, size and ownership.
Raw Materials: Industries may be agriculture based, Marine based, Mineral based, Forest based.
Size: It refers to the amount of capital invested, number of people employed and the volume of production.
Ownership: Industries can be classified into private sector, state owned or public sector, joint sector and co-operative sector
Industry in the sense of manufacturing became a key sector of production and labour in European and North American countries during the Industrial Revolution, which upset previous mercantile and feudal economies through many successive rapid advances in technology, such as the steel and coal production. It is aided by technological advances, and has continued to develop into new types and sectors to this day. Industrial countries then assumed a capitalist economic policy. Railroads and steam-powered ships began speedily establishing links with previously unreachable world markets, enabling private companies to develop to then-unheard of size and wealth. Following the Industrial Revolution, perhaps a third of the world's economic output is derived from manufacturing industries—more than agriculture's share.
Many developed countries and many developing/semi-developed countries (People's Republic of China, India etc.) depend significantly on industry. Industries, the countries they reside in, and the economies of those countries are interlinked in a complex web of interdependence.
Industry is divided into four sectors. They are:
Sector Definition
Primary This involves the extraction of resources directly from the Earth, this includes farming, mining and logging. They do not process the products at all. They send it off to factories to make a profit.
Secondary This group is involved in the processing products from primary industries. This includes all factories—those that refine metals, produce furniture, or pack farm products such as meat.
Tertiary This group is involved in the provision of services. They include teachers, managers and other service providers.
Quaternary This group is involved in the research of science and technology. They include scientists.
As a country develops people move away from the primary sector to secondary and then to tertiary.
There are many other different kinds of industries, and often organized into different classes or sectors by a variety of industrial classifications.
Industry classification systems used by the government[which?] commonly divide industry into three sectors: agriculture, manufacturing, and services. The primary sector of industry is agriculture, mining and raw material extraction. The secondary sector of industry is manufacturing. The tertiary sector of industry is service production. Sometimes, one talks about a quaternary sector of industry, consisting of intellectual services such as research and development (R&D).
Market-based classification systems such as the Global Industry Classification Standard and the Industry Classification Benchmark are used in finance and market research. These classification systems commonly divide industries according to similar functions and markets and identify businesses producing related products.
Industries can also be identified by product: chemical industry, petroleum industry, automotive industry, electronic industry, meatpacking industry, hospitality industry, food industry, fish industry, software industry, paper industry, entertainment industry, semiconductor industry, cultural industry, poverty industry
labor-intensive industry - capital-intensive industry
light industry - heavy industry
Declining industries
Main article: Deindustrialisation
Historically certain manufacturing industries have gone into a decline due to various economic factors, including the development of replacement technology or the loss of competitive advantage. An example of the former is the decline in carriage manufacturing when the automobile was mass-produced.
A recent trend has been the migration of prosperous, industrialized nations toward a post-industrial society. This is manifested by an increase in the service sector at the expense of manufacturing, and the development of an information-based economy, the so-called informational revolution. In a post-industrial society, manufacturing is relocated to economically more favourable locations through a process of off-shoring.
The major difficulty for people looking to measure manufacturing industries outputs and economic effect is finding a measurement which is stable historically. Traditionally, success has been measured in the number of jobs created. The lowering of employee numbers in the manufacturing sector has been assumed to be caused by a decline in the competitiveness of the sector. The truth however is that it has been caused by the introduction of the lean manufacturing process. Eventually, this will lead to competing product lines being managed by one of two people, as is already the case in the cigarette manufacturing industry.
Related to this change is the upgrading of the quality of the product being manufactured. While it is easy to produce a low tech, low skill product, the ability to manufacture high quality products is limited to companies with a high skilled staff.
[edit]Society
Main article: Industrial society
An industrial society can be defined in many ways. Today, industry is an important part of most societies and nations. A government must have some kind of industrial policy, regulating industrial placement, industrial pollution, financing and industrial labor.
Primary - Secondary - Tertiary
Main article: Industrial organization
Further information: Industrial loan company
Clark's Sector Model (1950)
Farming- The secondary sector,involving refinery refining,construction,and manufacturing;The Tertiary sector,which deals with services (such as law and medicine) and distribution of manufactured goods;And the Quaternary sector, a relatively new type of knowledge industry focusing on technological R&D research,design and development such as computer programming, and biochemistry. A fifth, quinary, sector has been proposed encompassing nonprofit activities. The economy is also broadly separated into public sector and private sector, with industry generally categorized as private. Industries are also any business or manufacturing. Industries can be classified on the basis of raw materials, size and ownership.
Raw Materials: Industries may be agriculture based, Marine based, Mineral based, Forest based.
Size: It refers to the amount of capital invested, number of people employed and the volume of production.
Ownership: Industries can be classified into private sector, state owned or public sector, joint sector and co-operative sector
Industry in the sense of manufacturing became a key sector of production and labour in European and North American countries during the Industrial Revolution, which upset previous mercantile and feudal economies through many successive rapid advances in technology, such as the steel and coal production. It is aided by technological advances, and has continued to develop into new types and sectors to this day. Industrial countries then assumed a capitalist economic policy. Railroads and steam-powered ships began speedily establishing links with previously unreachable world markets, enabling private companies to develop to then-unheard of size and wealth. Following the Industrial Revolution, perhaps a third of the world's economic output is derived from manufacturing industries—more than agriculture's share.
Many developed countries and many developing/semi-developed countries (People's Republic of China, India etc.) depend significantly on industry. Industries, the countries they reside in, and the economies of those countries are interlinked in a complex web of interdependence.
Industry is divided into four sectors. They are:
Sector Definition
Primary This involves the extraction of resources directly from the Earth, this includes farming, mining and logging. They do not process the products at all. They send it off to factories to make a profit.
Secondary This group is involved in the processing products from primary industries. This includes all factories—those that refine metals, produce furniture, or pack farm products such as meat.
Tertiary This group is involved in the provision of services. They include teachers, managers and other service providers.
Quaternary This group is involved in the research of science and technology. They include scientists.
As a country develops people move away from the primary sector to secondary and then to tertiary.
There are many other different kinds of industries, and often organized into different classes or sectors by a variety of industrial classifications.
Industry classification systems used by the government[which?] commonly divide industry into three sectors: agriculture, manufacturing, and services. The primary sector of industry is agriculture, mining and raw material extraction. The secondary sector of industry is manufacturing. The tertiary sector of industry is service production. Sometimes, one talks about a quaternary sector of industry, consisting of intellectual services such as research and development (R&D).
Market-based classification systems such as the Global Industry Classification Standard and the Industry Classification Benchmark are used in finance and market research. These classification systems commonly divide industries according to similar functions and markets and identify businesses producing related products.
Industries can also be identified by product: chemical industry, petroleum industry, automotive industry, electronic industry, meatpacking industry, hospitality industry, food industry, fish industry, software industry, paper industry, entertainment industry, semiconductor industry, cultural industry, poverty industry
labor-intensive industry - capital-intensive industry
light industry - heavy industry
Declining industries
Main article: Deindustrialisation
Historically certain manufacturing industries have gone into a decline due to various economic factors, including the development of replacement technology or the loss of competitive advantage. An example of the former is the decline in carriage manufacturing when the automobile was mass-produced.
A recent trend has been the migration of prosperous, industrialized nations toward a post-industrial society. This is manifested by an increase in the service sector at the expense of manufacturing, and the development of an information-based economy, the so-called informational revolution. In a post-industrial society, manufacturing is relocated to economically more favourable locations through a process of off-shoring.
The major difficulty for people looking to measure manufacturing industries outputs and economic effect is finding a measurement which is stable historically. Traditionally, success has been measured in the number of jobs created. The lowering of employee numbers in the manufacturing sector has been assumed to be caused by a decline in the competitiveness of the sector. The truth however is that it has been caused by the introduction of the lean manufacturing process. Eventually, this will lead to competing product lines being managed by one of two people, as is already the case in the cigarette manufacturing industry.
Related to this change is the upgrading of the quality of the product being manufactured. While it is easy to produce a low tech, low skill product, the ability to manufacture high quality products is limited to companies with a high skilled staff.
[edit]Society
Main article: Industrial society
An industrial society can be defined in many ways. Today, industry is an important part of most societies and nations. A government must have some kind of industrial policy, regulating industrial placement, industrial pollution, financing and industrial labor.
Primary - Secondary - Tertiary
Thursday 1 March 2012
Overnutrition
Overnutrition is a form of malnutrition in which nutrients are oversupplied relative to the amounts required for normal growth, development, and metabolism. Overnutrition is a type of malnutrition where there are more nutrients than required for normal growth.
The term can refer to:
obesity, brought on by general overeating of foods high in caloric content, as well as:
the oversupply of a specific nutrient or categories of nutrients, such as mineral or vitamin poisoning, due to excessive intake of dietary supplements or foods high in nutrients (such as liver), or nutritional imbalances caused by various fad diets.
For mineral excess, see:
Iron poisoning, and
low sodium diet (excess sodium).
The term can refer to:
obesity, brought on by general overeating of foods high in caloric content, as well as:
the oversupply of a specific nutrient or categories of nutrients, such as mineral or vitamin poisoning, due to excessive intake of dietary supplements or foods high in nutrients (such as liver), or nutritional imbalances caused by various fad diets.
For mineral excess, see:
Iron poisoning, and
low sodium diet (excess sodium).
undernutrition
When individuals are undernourished, they can no longer maintain natural bodily capacities, such as growth, resisting infections and recovering from disease, learning and physical work, and pregnancy and lactation in women. Poor feeding of infants and young children, especially the lack of optimal breastfeeding and responsive complementary feeding, along with such illnesses as diarrhoea, pneumonia, malaria and HIV/AIDS, often exacerbated by helminths, are major causes of undernutrition.2
The second target of MDG 1 is to reduce the proportion of people who suffer from hunger by half between 1990 and 2015. The indicator by which progress is measured – and the focus of this report card – is the prevalence of underweight in children under five, specifically, the percentage of children aged 0–59 months who fall below minus two standard deviations from the median weight for age of the standard reference population.
Estimates for underweight prevalence are based on the most recent data available to UNICEF for years between 1996 and 2005 from 110 countries, covering 98 per cent of the developing world’s under-five population. Trend analysis is based on a subset of 73 countries with available trend data for 1990–2004, covering 86 per cent of children in developing countries.
The second target of MDG 1 is to reduce the proportion of people who suffer from hunger by half between 1990 and 2015. The indicator by which progress is measured – and the focus of this report card – is the prevalence of underweight in children under five, specifically, the percentage of children aged 0–59 months who fall below minus two standard deviations from the median weight for age of the standard reference population.
Estimates for underweight prevalence are based on the most recent data available to UNICEF for years between 1996 and 2005 from 110 countries, covering 98 per cent of the developing world’s under-five population. Trend analysis is based on a subset of 73 countries with available trend data for 1990–2004, covering 86 per cent of children in developing countries.
Malnutrition
Malnutrition is the condition that results from taking an unbalanced diet in which certain nutrients are lacking, in excess (too high an intake), or in the wrong proportions.[1][2]
A number of different nutrition disorders may arise, depending on which nutrients are under or overabundant in the diet.
The World Health Organization cites malnutrition as the greatest single threat to the world's public health.[3] Improving nutrition is widely regarded as the most effective form of aid.[3][4] Emergency measures include providing deficient micronutrients through fortified sachet powders, such as peanut butter, or directly through supplements.[5][6] The famine relief model increasingly used by aid groups calls for giving cash or cash vouchers to the hungry to pay local farmers instead of buying food from donor countries, often required by law, as it wastes money on transport costs.[7][8]
There are various methods used to gauge the degree of malnutrition, including the Gomez Classification. This classifies as 1st, 2nd or 3rd degree malnutrition according to the percentage of normal body weight a person is.
Long term measures include fostering nutritionally dense agriculture by increasing yields, while making sure negative consequences affecting yields in the future are minimized.[9]
Recent efforts include aid to farmers.[10] However, World Bank strictures restrict government subsidies for farmers, while the spread of fertilizer[11] use may adversely affect ecosystems and human health[12] and is hampered by various civil society groups.
Mortality
According to Jean Ziegler(the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food for 2000 to March 2008), mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality in 2006: "In the world, approximately 62 million people, all causes of death combined, die each year. One in twelve people worldwide is malnourished.[14] In 2006, more than 36 million died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients".[15]
According to the World Health Organization, malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases.[3] Six million children die of hunger every year.[16] Underweight births and inter-uterine growth restrictions cause 2.2 million child deaths a year. Poor or non-existent breastfeeding causes another 1.4 million. Other deficiencies, such as lack of vitamin A or zinc, for example, account for 1 million. Malnutrition in the first two years is irreversible. Malnourished children grow up with worse health and lower educational achievements. Their own children also tend to be smaller. Malnutrition was previously seen as something that exacerbates the problems of diseases as measles, pneumonia and diarrhea. But malnutrition actually causes diseases as well, and can be fatal in its own right.[3]
[edit]Causes
Malnutrition increases the risk of infection and infectious disease; for example, it is a major risk factor in the onset of active tuberculosis.[17] In communities or areas that lack access to safe drinking water, these additional health risks present a critical problem. Lower energy and impaired function of the brain also represent the downward spiral of malnutrition as victims are less able to perform the tasks they need to in order to acquire food, earn an income, or gain an education.
Nutrients Deficiency Excess
Food energy Starvation, Marasmus Obesity, diabetes mellitus, Cardiovascular disease
Simple carbohydrates none diabetes mellitus, Obesity
Complex carbohydrates none Obesity
Saturated fat low sex hormone levels [18] Cardiovascular disease
Trans fat none Cardiovascular disease
Unsaturated fat none Obesity
Fat Malabsorption of Fat-soluble vitamins, Rabbit Starvation (If protein intake is high) Cardiovascular disease (claimed by some)
Omega 3 Fats Cardiovascular disease Bleeding, Hemorrhages
Omega 6 Fats none Cardiovascular disease, Cancer
Cholesterol none Cardiovascular disease
Protein kwashiorkor Rabbit starvation
Sodium hyponatremia Hypernatremia, hypertension
Iron Iron deficiency: Anemia Cirrhosis, heart disease
Iodine Iodine deficiency: Goiter, hypothyroidism Iodine Toxicity (goiter, hypothyroidism)
Vitamin A Vitamin A deficiency: Xerophthalmia and Night Blindness, low testosterone levels Hypervitaminosis A (cirrhosis, hair loss)
Vitamin B1 Beri-Beri
Vitamin B2 Ariboflavinosis: Cracking of skin and Corneal Ulceration
Vitamin B3 Pellagra dyspepsia, cardiac arrhythmias, birth defects
Vitamin B12 Pernicious anemia
Vitamin C Scurvy diarrhea causing dehydration
Vitamin D Rickets Hypervitaminosis D (dehydration, vomiting, constipation)
Vitamin E nervous disorders Hypervitaminosis E (anticoagulant: excessive bleeding)
Vitamin K Vitamin K deficiency: Haemorrhage
Calcium Osteoporosis, tetany, carpopedal spasm, laryngospasm, cardiac arrhythmias Fatigue, depression, confusion, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, constipation, pancreatitis, increased urination
Magnesium Magnesium deficiency: Hypertension Weakness, nausea, vomiting, impaired breathing, and hypotension
Potassium Hypokalemia, cardiac arrhythmias Hyperkalemia, palpitations
Boron Boron deficiency
Manganese Manganese deficiency
[edit]Psychological
Malnutrition, in the form of iodine deficiency, is "the most common preventable cause of mental impairment worldwide."[19] Even moderate iodine deficiency, especially in pregnant women and infants, lowers intelligence by 10 to 15 I.Q. points, shaving incalculable potential off a nation’s development.[19] The most visible and severe effects — disabling goiters, cretinism and dwarfism — affect a tiny minority, usually in mountain villages. But 16 percent of the world’s people have at least mild goiter, a swollen thyroid gland in the neck.[19]
Protein-calorie malnutrition can cause cognitive impairments. For humans, "critical period varies from the final third of gestation to the first 2 years of life".[20]
Research indicates that improving the awareness of nutritious meal choices and establishing long-term habits of healthy eating has a positive effect on a cognitive and spatial memory capacity, potentially increasing a student's potential to process and retain academic information.
Some organizations have begun working with teachers, policymakers, and managed food service contractors to mandate improved nutritional content and increased nutritional resources in school cafeterias from primary to university level institutions. Health and nutrition have been proven to have close links with overall educational success.[21] Currently less than 10% of American college students report that they eat the recommended five servings of fruit and vegetables daily.[22] Better nutrition has been shown to have an impact on both cognitive and spatial memory performance; a study showed those with higher blood sugar levels performed better on certain memory tests.[23] In another study, those who consumed yogurt performed better on thinking tasks when compared to those who consumed caffeine free diet soda or confections.[24] Nutritional deficiencies have been shown to have a negative effect on learning behavior in mice as far back as 1951.[25]
"Better learning performance is associated with diet induced effects on learning and memory ability".[26]
The "nutrition-learning nexus" demonstrates the correlation between diet and learning and has application in a higher education setting.
"We find that better nourished children perform significantly better in school, partly because they enter school earlier and thus have more time to learn but mostly because of greater learning productivity per year of schooling."[27]
91% of college students feel that they are in good health while only 7% eat their recommended daily allowance of fruits and vegetables.[22]
Nutritional education is an effective and workable model in a higher education setting.[28][29]
More "engaged" learning models that encompass nutrition is an idea that is picking up steam at all levels of the learning cycle.[30]
There is limited research available that directly links a student's Grade Point Average (G.P.A.) to their overall nutritional health. Additional substantive data is needed to prove that overall intellectual health is closely linked to a person's diet, rather than just another correlation fallacy.
Nutritional supplement treatment may be appropriate for major depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive compulsive disorder, the four most common mental disorders in developed countries.[31] Supplements that have been studied most for mood elevation and stabilization include eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (each of which are an omega-3 fatty acid contained in fish oil, but not in flaxseed oil), vitamin B12, folic acid, and inositol.
[edit]Cancer
Cancer is now common in developing countries. According a study by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, "In the developing world, cancers of the liver, stomach and esophagus were more common, often linked to consumption of carcinogenic preserved foods, such as smoked or salted food, and parasitic infections that attack organs." Lung cancer rates are rising rapidly in poorer nations because of increased use of tobacco. Developed countries "tended to have cancers linked to affluence or a 'Western lifestyle' — cancers of the colon, rectum, breast and prostate — that can be caused by obesity, lack of exercise, diet and age."[32]
[edit]Metabolic syndrome
Several lines of evidence indicate lifestyle-induced hyperinsulinemia and reduced insulin function (i.e. insulin resistance) as a decisive factor in many disease states. For example, hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance are strongly linked to chronic inflammation, which in turn is strongly linked to a variety of adverse developments such as arterial microinjuries and clot formation (i.e. heart disease) and exaggerated cell division (i.e. cancer). Hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance (the so-called metabolic syndrome) are characterized by a combination of abdominal obesity, elevated blood sugar, elevated blood pressure, elevated blood triglycerides, and reduced HDL cholesterol. The negative impact of hyperinsulinemia on prostaglandin PGE1/PGE2 balance may be significant.
The state of obesity clearly contributes to insulin resistance, which in turn can cause type 2 diabetes. Virtually all obese and most type 2 diabetic individuals have marked insulin resistance. Although the association between overweight and insulin resistance is clear, the exact (likely multifarious) causes of insulin resistance remain less clear. Importantly, it has been demonstrated that appropriate exercise, more regular food intake and reducing glycemic load (see below) all can reverse insulin resistance in overweight individuals (and thereby lower blood sugar levels in those who have type 2 diabetes).
Obesity can unfavourably alter hormonal and metabolic status via resistance to the hormone leptin, and a vicious cycle may occur in which insulin/leptin resistance and obesity aggravate one another. The vicious cycle is putatively fuelled by continuously high insulin/leptin stimulation and fat storage, as a result of high intake of strongly insulin/leptin stimulating foods and energy. Both insulin and leptin normally function as satiety signals to the hypothalamus in the brain; however, insulin/leptin resistance may reduce this signal and therefore allow continued overfeeding despite large body fat stores. In addition, reduced leptin signalling to the brain may reduce leptin's normal effect to maintain an appropriately high metabolic rate.
There is a debate about how and to what extent different dietary factors— such as intake of processed carbohydrates, total protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake, intake of saturated and trans fatty acids, and low intake of vitamins/minerals—contribute to the development of insulin and leptin resistance. In any case, analogous to the way modern man-made pollution may potentially overwhelm the environment's ability to maintain homeostasis, the recent explosive introduction of high glycemic index and processed foods into the human diet may potentially overwhelm the body's ability to maintain homeostasis and health (as evidenced by the metabolic syndrome epidemic).[citation needed]
[edit]Hyponatremia
Excess water intake, without replenishment of sodium and potassium salts, leads to hyponatremia, which can further lead to water intoxication at more dangerous levels. A well-publicized case occurred in 2007, when Jennifer Strange died while participating in a water-drinking contest.[33] More usually, the condition occurs in long-distance endurance events (such as marathon or triathlon competition and training) and causes gradual mental dulling, headache, drowsiness, weakness, and confusion; extreme cases may result in coma, convulsions, and death. The primary damage comes from swelling of the brain, caused by increased osmosis as blood salinity decreases. Effective fluid replacement techniques include Water aid stations during running/cycling races, trainers providing water during team games such as Soccer and devices such as Camel Baks which can provide water for a person without making it too hard to drink the water.
[edit]Overeating vs. hunger
Although a lot of the focus regarding malnutrition centers around undernourishment, overeating is also a form of malnutrition. Overeating is much more common in the United States,[34] where for the majority of people, access to food is not an issue. The issue in these developed countries is choosing the right kind of food. Fast food is consumed more per capita in the United States than in any other country. The reason for this mass consumption of food is the affordability and accessibility. Oftentimes the fast food, low in cost and nutrition, is high in calories and heavily promoted. When these eating habits are combined with increasingly urbanized, automated, and more sedentary lifestyles, it becomes clear why gaining weight is difficult to avoid.[35]
However, overeating is also a problem in countries where hunger and poverty persist. In China, consumption of high-fat foods has increased while consumption of rice and other goods has decreased.[36] Overeating leads to many diseases, such as heart disease and diabetes, that may result in death.
[edit]Causes
Major causes of malnutrition include poverty and food prices, dietary practices and agricultural productivity, with many individual cases being a mixture of several factors. Malnutrition can also be a consequence of other health issues such as gastroenteritis[37] or chronic illness,[38] especially the HIV/AIDS pandemic[39] Clinical malnutrition, such as in cachexia, is a major burden also in developed countries.
[edit]Poverty and food prices
As much as food shortages may be a contributing factor to malnutrition in countries with lack of technology, the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) has estimated that eighty percent of malnourished children living in the developing world live in countries that produce food surpluses.[36] The economist Amartya Sen observed that, in recent decades, famine has always a problem of food distribution and/or poverty, as there has been sufficient food to feed the whole population of the world. He states that malnutrition and famine were more related to problems of food distribution and purchasing power.[40]
It is argued that commodity speculators are increasing the cost of food. As the real estate bubble in the United States was collapsing, it is said that trillions of dollars moved to invest in food and primary commodities, causing the 2007–2008 food price crisis.[41]
The use of biofuels as a replacement for traditional fuels may leave less supply of food for nutrition and raises the price of food.[42] The United Nations special rapporteur on the right to food, Jean Ziegler proposes that agricultural waste, such as corn cobs and banana leaves, rather than crops themselves be used as fuel.[43]
[edit]Dietary practices
A lack of breastfeeding can lead to malnutrition in infants and children. Possible reasons for the lack in the developing world may be that the average family thinks bottle feeding is better.[44] The WHO says mothers abandon it because they do not know how to get their baby to latch on properly or suffer pain and discomfort.[45]
Deriving too much of one's diet from a single source, such as eating almost exclusively corn or rice, can cause malnutrition. This may either be from a lack of education about proper nutrition, or from only having access to a single food source.
Many tend to think malnutrition only in terms of hunger, however, overeating is also a contributing factor as well. Many parts of the world have access to a surplus of non-nutritious food, in addition to increased sedentary lifestyles. In turn, this has created a universal epidemic of obesity. Yale psychologist Kelly Brownell calls this a "toxic food environment” where fat and sugar laden foods have taken precedent over healthy nutritious foods. Not only does obesity occur in developed countries, problems are also occurring in developing countries in areas where income is on the rise.[36]
[edit]Agricultural productivity
Food shortages can be caused by a lack of farming skills such as crop rotation, or by a lack of technology or resources needed for the higher yields found in modern agriculture, such as nitrogen fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation. As a result of widespread poverty, farmers cannot afford or governments cannot provide the technology. The World Bank and some wealthy donor countries also press nations that depend on aid to cut or eliminate subsidized agricultural inputs such as fertilizer, in the name of free market policies even as the United States and Europe extensively subsidized their own farmers.[13][46] Many, if not most, farmers cannot afford fertilizer at market prices, leading to low agricultural production and wages and high, unaffordable food prices.[13] Reasons for the unavailability of fertilizer include moves to stop supplying fertilizer on environmental grounds, cited as the obstacle to feeding Africa by the Green Revolution pioneer Norman Borlaug.[11]
[edit]Future threats
There are a number of potential disruptions to global food supply that could cause widespread malnutrition.
Climate change is of great importance to food security. With 95% of all malnourished peoples living in the relatively stable climate region of the sub-tropics and tropics. According to the latest IPCC reports, temperature increases in these regions are "very likely."[47] Even small changes in temperatures can lead to increased frequency of extreme weather conditions.[47] Many of these have great impact on agricultural production and hence nutrition. For example, the 1998–2001 central Asian drought brought about an 80% livestock loss and 50% reduction in wheat and barley crops in Iran.[48] Similar figures were present in other nations. An increase in extreme weather such as drought in regions such as Sub-Saharan would have even greater consequences in terms of malnutrition. Even without an increase of extreme weather events, a simple increase in temperature reduces the productiveness of many crop species, also decreasing food security in these regions.[47][49]
Colony collapse disorder is a phenomenon where bees are dying in large numbers.[50] Since many agricultural crops worldwide are pollinated by bees, this represents a serious threat to the supply of food.[51]
An epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by race Ug99 is currently spreading across Africa and into Asia and, it is feared, could wipe out more than 80% of the world’s wheat crops.[52][53]
[edit]Management
Main articles: Ready-to-Use Therapeutic food and famine relief
Fighting malnutrition, mostly through fortifying foods with micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), improves lives at a lower cost and shorter time than other forms of aid, according to the World Bank.[54] The Copenhagen Consensus, which look at a variety of development proposals, ranked micronutrient supplements as number one.[4][55] However, roughly $300m of aid goes to basic nutrition each year, less than $2 for each child below two in the 20 worst affected countries.[3] In contrast, HIV/AIDS, which causes fewer deaths than child malnutrition, received $2.2 billion—$67 per person with HIV in all countries.[3]
[edit]Emergency measures
Micronutrients can be obtained through fortifying foods.[4] Fortifying foods such as peanut butter sachets (see Plumpy'Nut) and Spirulina have revolutionized emergency feeding in humanitarian emergencies because they can be eaten directly from the packet, do not require refrigeration or mixing with scarce clean water, can be stored for years and, vitally, can be absorbed by extremely ill children.[5] The United Nations World Food Conference of 1974 declared Spirulina as 'the best food for the future' and its ready harvest every 24 hours make it a potent tool to eradicate malnutrition. Additionally, supplements, such as Vitamin A capsules or Zinc tablets to cure diarrhea in children, are used.[6]
There is a growing realization among aid groups that giving cash or cash vouchers instead of food is a cheaper, faster, and more efficient way to deliver help to the hungry, particularly in areas where food is available but unaffordable.[7] The UN's World Food Program, the biggest non-governmental distributor of food, announced that it will begin distributing cash and vouchers instead of food in some areas, which Josette Sheeran, the WFP's executive director, described as a "revolution" in food aid.[7][8] The aid agency Concern Worldwide is piloting a method through a mobile phone operator, Safaricom, which runs a money transfer program that allows cash to be sent from one part of the country to another.[7]
However, for people in a drought living a long way from and with limited access to markets, delivering food may be the most appropriate way to help.[7] Fred Cuny stated that "the chances of saving lives at the outset of a relief operation are greatly reduced when food is imported. By the time it arrives in the country and gets to people, many will have died."[56] US Law, which requires buying food at home rather than where the hungry live, is inefficient because approximately half of what is spent goes for transport.[55] Fred Cuny further pointed out "studies of every recent famine have shown that food was available in-country — though not always in the immediate food deficit area" and "even though by local standards the prices are too high for the poor to purchase it, it would usually be cheaper for a donor to buy the hoarded food at the inflated price than to import it from abroad."[57] Ethiopia has been pioneering a program that has now become part of the World Bank's prescribed recipe for coping with a food crisis and had been seen by aid organizations as a model of how to best help hungry nations. Through the country's main food assistance program, the Productive Safety Net Program, Ethiopia has been giving rural residents who are chronically short of food, a chance to work for food or cash. Foreign aid organizations like the World Food Program were then able to buy food locally from surplus areas to distribute in areas with a shortage of food.[58] Not only has Ethiopia been pioneering a program but Brazil has also established a recycling program for organic waste that benefits farmers, urban poor, and the city in general. City residents separate organic waste from their garbage, bag it, and then exchange it for fresh fruit and vegetables from local farmers. As a result, this reduces its countries waste and the urban poor get a steady supply of nutritious food.[35]
[edit]Long-term measures
Main article: food security
The effort to bring modern agricultural techniques found in the West, such as nitrogen fertilizers and pesticides, to Asia, called the Green Revolution, resulted in decreases in malnutrition similar to those seen earlier in Western nations. This was possible because of existing infrastructure and institutions that are in short supply in Africa, such as a system of roads or public seed companies that made seeds available.[59] Investments in agriculture, such as subsidized fertilizers and seeds, increases food harvest and reduces food prices.[13][60] For example, in the case of Malawi, almost five million of its 13 million people used to need emergency food aid. However, after the government changed policy and subsidies for fertilizer and seed were introduced against World Bank strictures, farmers produced record-breaking corn harvests as production leaped to 3.4 million in 2007 from 1.2 million in 2005, making Malawi a major food exporter.[13] This lowered food prices and increased wages for farm workers.[13] Proponents for investing in agriculture include Jeffrey Sachs, who has championed the idea that wealthy countries should invest in fertilizer and seed for Africa’s farmers.[10][13]
Breast-feeding education helps. Breastfeeding in the first two years and exclusive breastfeeding in the first six months could save 1.3 million children’s lives.[61] In the longer term, firms are trying to fortify everyday foods with micronutrients that can be sold to consumers such as wheat flour for Beladi bread in Egypt or fish sauce in Vietnam and the iodization of salt.[5]
Restricting population size is a proposed solution. Thomas Malthus argued that population growth could be controlled by natural disasters and voluntary limits through “moral restraint.”[62] Robert Chapman suggests that an intervention through government policies is a necessary ingredient of curtailing global population growth.[63] However, there are many who believe that the world has more than enough resources to sustain its population. Instead, these theorists point to unequal distribution of resources and under- or unutilized arable land as the cause for malnutrition problems.[64][65] For example, Amaryta Sen advocates that, “no matter how a famine is caused, methods of breaking it call for a large supply of food in the public distribution system. This applies not only to organizing rationing and control, but also to undertaking work programmes and other methods of increasing purchasing power for those hit by shifts in exchange entitlements in a general inflationary situation.”[40] One suggested policy framework to resolve access issues is termed food sovereignty, the right of peoples to define their own food, agriculture, livestock, and fisheries systems in contrast to having food largely subjected to international market forces. Food First is one of the primary think tanks working to build support for food sovereignty. Neoliberals advocate for an increasing role of the free market. Another possible long term solution would be to increase access to health facilities to rural parts of the world. These facilities could monitor undernourished children, act as supplemental food distribution centers, and provide education on dietary needs. These types of facilities have already proven very successful in countries such as Peru and Ghana.[66][67] New technology in agricultural production also has great potential to combat under nutrition.[68] By improving agricultural yields, farmers could reduce poverty by increasing income as well as open up area for diversification of crops for household use. The World Bank itself claims to be part of the solution to malnutrition, asserting that the best way for countries to succeed in breaking the cycle of poverty and malnutrition is to build export-led economies that will give them the financial means to buy foodstuffs on the world market.
When aiming to prevent rather than treat overeating, which is also a form of malnutrition, starting in the school environment would be the perfect place as this is where the education children receive today will help them choose healthier foods during childhood, as well as into adulthood. As seen in Singapore, if we increase nutrition in school lunch programs and physical activity for children and teachers, obesity can be reduced by almost 30–50%
A number of different nutrition disorders may arise, depending on which nutrients are under or overabundant in the diet.
The World Health Organization cites malnutrition as the greatest single threat to the world's public health.[3] Improving nutrition is widely regarded as the most effective form of aid.[3][4] Emergency measures include providing deficient micronutrients through fortified sachet powders, such as peanut butter, or directly through supplements.[5][6] The famine relief model increasingly used by aid groups calls for giving cash or cash vouchers to the hungry to pay local farmers instead of buying food from donor countries, often required by law, as it wastes money on transport costs.[7][8]
There are various methods used to gauge the degree of malnutrition, including the Gomez Classification. This classifies as 1st, 2nd or 3rd degree malnutrition according to the percentage of normal body weight a person is.
Long term measures include fostering nutritionally dense agriculture by increasing yields, while making sure negative consequences affecting yields in the future are minimized.[9]
Recent efforts include aid to farmers.[10] However, World Bank strictures restrict government subsidies for farmers, while the spread of fertilizer[11] use may adversely affect ecosystems and human health[12] and is hampered by various civil society groups.
Mortality
According to Jean Ziegler(the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food for 2000 to March 2008), mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality in 2006: "In the world, approximately 62 million people, all causes of death combined, die each year. One in twelve people worldwide is malnourished.[14] In 2006, more than 36 million died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients".[15]
According to the World Health Organization, malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases.[3] Six million children die of hunger every year.[16] Underweight births and inter-uterine growth restrictions cause 2.2 million child deaths a year. Poor or non-existent breastfeeding causes another 1.4 million. Other deficiencies, such as lack of vitamin A or zinc, for example, account for 1 million. Malnutrition in the first two years is irreversible. Malnourished children grow up with worse health and lower educational achievements. Their own children also tend to be smaller. Malnutrition was previously seen as something that exacerbates the problems of diseases as measles, pneumonia and diarrhea. But malnutrition actually causes diseases as well, and can be fatal in its own right.[3]
[edit]Causes
Malnutrition increases the risk of infection and infectious disease; for example, it is a major risk factor in the onset of active tuberculosis.[17] In communities or areas that lack access to safe drinking water, these additional health risks present a critical problem. Lower energy and impaired function of the brain also represent the downward spiral of malnutrition as victims are less able to perform the tasks they need to in order to acquire food, earn an income, or gain an education.
Nutrients Deficiency Excess
Food energy Starvation, Marasmus Obesity, diabetes mellitus, Cardiovascular disease
Simple carbohydrates none diabetes mellitus, Obesity
Complex carbohydrates none Obesity
Saturated fat low sex hormone levels [18] Cardiovascular disease
Trans fat none Cardiovascular disease
Unsaturated fat none Obesity
Fat Malabsorption of Fat-soluble vitamins, Rabbit Starvation (If protein intake is high) Cardiovascular disease (claimed by some)
Omega 3 Fats Cardiovascular disease Bleeding, Hemorrhages
Omega 6 Fats none Cardiovascular disease, Cancer
Cholesterol none Cardiovascular disease
Protein kwashiorkor Rabbit starvation
Sodium hyponatremia Hypernatremia, hypertension
Iron Iron deficiency: Anemia Cirrhosis, heart disease
Iodine Iodine deficiency: Goiter, hypothyroidism Iodine Toxicity (goiter, hypothyroidism)
Vitamin A Vitamin A deficiency: Xerophthalmia and Night Blindness, low testosterone levels Hypervitaminosis A (cirrhosis, hair loss)
Vitamin B1 Beri-Beri
Vitamin B2 Ariboflavinosis: Cracking of skin and Corneal Ulceration
Vitamin B3 Pellagra dyspepsia, cardiac arrhythmias, birth defects
Vitamin B12 Pernicious anemia
Vitamin C Scurvy diarrhea causing dehydration
Vitamin D Rickets Hypervitaminosis D (dehydration, vomiting, constipation)
Vitamin E nervous disorders Hypervitaminosis E (anticoagulant: excessive bleeding)
Vitamin K Vitamin K deficiency: Haemorrhage
Calcium Osteoporosis, tetany, carpopedal spasm, laryngospasm, cardiac arrhythmias Fatigue, depression, confusion, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, constipation, pancreatitis, increased urination
Magnesium Magnesium deficiency: Hypertension Weakness, nausea, vomiting, impaired breathing, and hypotension
Potassium Hypokalemia, cardiac arrhythmias Hyperkalemia, palpitations
Boron Boron deficiency
Manganese Manganese deficiency
[edit]Psychological
Malnutrition, in the form of iodine deficiency, is "the most common preventable cause of mental impairment worldwide."[19] Even moderate iodine deficiency, especially in pregnant women and infants, lowers intelligence by 10 to 15 I.Q. points, shaving incalculable potential off a nation’s development.[19] The most visible and severe effects — disabling goiters, cretinism and dwarfism — affect a tiny minority, usually in mountain villages. But 16 percent of the world’s people have at least mild goiter, a swollen thyroid gland in the neck.[19]
Protein-calorie malnutrition can cause cognitive impairments. For humans, "critical period varies from the final third of gestation to the first 2 years of life".[20]
Research indicates that improving the awareness of nutritious meal choices and establishing long-term habits of healthy eating has a positive effect on a cognitive and spatial memory capacity, potentially increasing a student's potential to process and retain academic information.
Some organizations have begun working with teachers, policymakers, and managed food service contractors to mandate improved nutritional content and increased nutritional resources in school cafeterias from primary to university level institutions. Health and nutrition have been proven to have close links with overall educational success.[21] Currently less than 10% of American college students report that they eat the recommended five servings of fruit and vegetables daily.[22] Better nutrition has been shown to have an impact on both cognitive and spatial memory performance; a study showed those with higher blood sugar levels performed better on certain memory tests.[23] In another study, those who consumed yogurt performed better on thinking tasks when compared to those who consumed caffeine free diet soda or confections.[24] Nutritional deficiencies have been shown to have a negative effect on learning behavior in mice as far back as 1951.[25]
"Better learning performance is associated with diet induced effects on learning and memory ability".[26]
The "nutrition-learning nexus" demonstrates the correlation between diet and learning and has application in a higher education setting.
"We find that better nourished children perform significantly better in school, partly because they enter school earlier and thus have more time to learn but mostly because of greater learning productivity per year of schooling."[27]
91% of college students feel that they are in good health while only 7% eat their recommended daily allowance of fruits and vegetables.[22]
Nutritional education is an effective and workable model in a higher education setting.[28][29]
More "engaged" learning models that encompass nutrition is an idea that is picking up steam at all levels of the learning cycle.[30]
There is limited research available that directly links a student's Grade Point Average (G.P.A.) to their overall nutritional health. Additional substantive data is needed to prove that overall intellectual health is closely linked to a person's diet, rather than just another correlation fallacy.
Nutritional supplement treatment may be appropriate for major depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive compulsive disorder, the four most common mental disorders in developed countries.[31] Supplements that have been studied most for mood elevation and stabilization include eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (each of which are an omega-3 fatty acid contained in fish oil, but not in flaxseed oil), vitamin B12, folic acid, and inositol.
[edit]Cancer
Cancer is now common in developing countries. According a study by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, "In the developing world, cancers of the liver, stomach and esophagus were more common, often linked to consumption of carcinogenic preserved foods, such as smoked or salted food, and parasitic infections that attack organs." Lung cancer rates are rising rapidly in poorer nations because of increased use of tobacco. Developed countries "tended to have cancers linked to affluence or a 'Western lifestyle' — cancers of the colon, rectum, breast and prostate — that can be caused by obesity, lack of exercise, diet and age."[32]
[edit]Metabolic syndrome
Several lines of evidence indicate lifestyle-induced hyperinsulinemia and reduced insulin function (i.e. insulin resistance) as a decisive factor in many disease states. For example, hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance are strongly linked to chronic inflammation, which in turn is strongly linked to a variety of adverse developments such as arterial microinjuries and clot formation (i.e. heart disease) and exaggerated cell division (i.e. cancer). Hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance (the so-called metabolic syndrome) are characterized by a combination of abdominal obesity, elevated blood sugar, elevated blood pressure, elevated blood triglycerides, and reduced HDL cholesterol. The negative impact of hyperinsulinemia on prostaglandin PGE1/PGE2 balance may be significant.
The state of obesity clearly contributes to insulin resistance, which in turn can cause type 2 diabetes. Virtually all obese and most type 2 diabetic individuals have marked insulin resistance. Although the association between overweight and insulin resistance is clear, the exact (likely multifarious) causes of insulin resistance remain less clear. Importantly, it has been demonstrated that appropriate exercise, more regular food intake and reducing glycemic load (see below) all can reverse insulin resistance in overweight individuals (and thereby lower blood sugar levels in those who have type 2 diabetes).
Obesity can unfavourably alter hormonal and metabolic status via resistance to the hormone leptin, and a vicious cycle may occur in which insulin/leptin resistance and obesity aggravate one another. The vicious cycle is putatively fuelled by continuously high insulin/leptin stimulation and fat storage, as a result of high intake of strongly insulin/leptin stimulating foods and energy. Both insulin and leptin normally function as satiety signals to the hypothalamus in the brain; however, insulin/leptin resistance may reduce this signal and therefore allow continued overfeeding despite large body fat stores. In addition, reduced leptin signalling to the brain may reduce leptin's normal effect to maintain an appropriately high metabolic rate.
There is a debate about how and to what extent different dietary factors— such as intake of processed carbohydrates, total protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake, intake of saturated and trans fatty acids, and low intake of vitamins/minerals—contribute to the development of insulin and leptin resistance. In any case, analogous to the way modern man-made pollution may potentially overwhelm the environment's ability to maintain homeostasis, the recent explosive introduction of high glycemic index and processed foods into the human diet may potentially overwhelm the body's ability to maintain homeostasis and health (as evidenced by the metabolic syndrome epidemic).[citation needed]
[edit]Hyponatremia
Excess water intake, without replenishment of sodium and potassium salts, leads to hyponatremia, which can further lead to water intoxication at more dangerous levels. A well-publicized case occurred in 2007, when Jennifer Strange died while participating in a water-drinking contest.[33] More usually, the condition occurs in long-distance endurance events (such as marathon or triathlon competition and training) and causes gradual mental dulling, headache, drowsiness, weakness, and confusion; extreme cases may result in coma, convulsions, and death. The primary damage comes from swelling of the brain, caused by increased osmosis as blood salinity decreases. Effective fluid replacement techniques include Water aid stations during running/cycling races, trainers providing water during team games such as Soccer and devices such as Camel Baks which can provide water for a person without making it too hard to drink the water.
[edit]Overeating vs. hunger
Although a lot of the focus regarding malnutrition centers around undernourishment, overeating is also a form of malnutrition. Overeating is much more common in the United States,[34] where for the majority of people, access to food is not an issue. The issue in these developed countries is choosing the right kind of food. Fast food is consumed more per capita in the United States than in any other country. The reason for this mass consumption of food is the affordability and accessibility. Oftentimes the fast food, low in cost and nutrition, is high in calories and heavily promoted. When these eating habits are combined with increasingly urbanized, automated, and more sedentary lifestyles, it becomes clear why gaining weight is difficult to avoid.[35]
However, overeating is also a problem in countries where hunger and poverty persist. In China, consumption of high-fat foods has increased while consumption of rice and other goods has decreased.[36] Overeating leads to many diseases, such as heart disease and diabetes, that may result in death.
[edit]Causes
Major causes of malnutrition include poverty and food prices, dietary practices and agricultural productivity, with many individual cases being a mixture of several factors. Malnutrition can also be a consequence of other health issues such as gastroenteritis[37] or chronic illness,[38] especially the HIV/AIDS pandemic[39] Clinical malnutrition, such as in cachexia, is a major burden also in developed countries.
[edit]Poverty and food prices
As much as food shortages may be a contributing factor to malnutrition in countries with lack of technology, the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) has estimated that eighty percent of malnourished children living in the developing world live in countries that produce food surpluses.[36] The economist Amartya Sen observed that, in recent decades, famine has always a problem of food distribution and/or poverty, as there has been sufficient food to feed the whole population of the world. He states that malnutrition and famine were more related to problems of food distribution and purchasing power.[40]
It is argued that commodity speculators are increasing the cost of food. As the real estate bubble in the United States was collapsing, it is said that trillions of dollars moved to invest in food and primary commodities, causing the 2007–2008 food price crisis.[41]
The use of biofuels as a replacement for traditional fuels may leave less supply of food for nutrition and raises the price of food.[42] The United Nations special rapporteur on the right to food, Jean Ziegler proposes that agricultural waste, such as corn cobs and banana leaves, rather than crops themselves be used as fuel.[43]
[edit]Dietary practices
A lack of breastfeeding can lead to malnutrition in infants and children. Possible reasons for the lack in the developing world may be that the average family thinks bottle feeding is better.[44] The WHO says mothers abandon it because they do not know how to get their baby to latch on properly or suffer pain and discomfort.[45]
Deriving too much of one's diet from a single source, such as eating almost exclusively corn or rice, can cause malnutrition. This may either be from a lack of education about proper nutrition, or from only having access to a single food source.
Many tend to think malnutrition only in terms of hunger, however, overeating is also a contributing factor as well. Many parts of the world have access to a surplus of non-nutritious food, in addition to increased sedentary lifestyles. In turn, this has created a universal epidemic of obesity. Yale psychologist Kelly Brownell calls this a "toxic food environment” where fat and sugar laden foods have taken precedent over healthy nutritious foods. Not only does obesity occur in developed countries, problems are also occurring in developing countries in areas where income is on the rise.[36]
[edit]Agricultural productivity
Food shortages can be caused by a lack of farming skills such as crop rotation, or by a lack of technology or resources needed for the higher yields found in modern agriculture, such as nitrogen fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation. As a result of widespread poverty, farmers cannot afford or governments cannot provide the technology. The World Bank and some wealthy donor countries also press nations that depend on aid to cut or eliminate subsidized agricultural inputs such as fertilizer, in the name of free market policies even as the United States and Europe extensively subsidized their own farmers.[13][46] Many, if not most, farmers cannot afford fertilizer at market prices, leading to low agricultural production and wages and high, unaffordable food prices.[13] Reasons for the unavailability of fertilizer include moves to stop supplying fertilizer on environmental grounds, cited as the obstacle to feeding Africa by the Green Revolution pioneer Norman Borlaug.[11]
[edit]Future threats
There are a number of potential disruptions to global food supply that could cause widespread malnutrition.
Climate change is of great importance to food security. With 95% of all malnourished peoples living in the relatively stable climate region of the sub-tropics and tropics. According to the latest IPCC reports, temperature increases in these regions are "very likely."[47] Even small changes in temperatures can lead to increased frequency of extreme weather conditions.[47] Many of these have great impact on agricultural production and hence nutrition. For example, the 1998–2001 central Asian drought brought about an 80% livestock loss and 50% reduction in wheat and barley crops in Iran.[48] Similar figures were present in other nations. An increase in extreme weather such as drought in regions such as Sub-Saharan would have even greater consequences in terms of malnutrition. Even without an increase of extreme weather events, a simple increase in temperature reduces the productiveness of many crop species, also decreasing food security in these regions.[47][49]
Colony collapse disorder is a phenomenon where bees are dying in large numbers.[50] Since many agricultural crops worldwide are pollinated by bees, this represents a serious threat to the supply of food.[51]
An epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by race Ug99 is currently spreading across Africa and into Asia and, it is feared, could wipe out more than 80% of the world’s wheat crops.[52][53]
[edit]Management
Main articles: Ready-to-Use Therapeutic food and famine relief
Fighting malnutrition, mostly through fortifying foods with micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), improves lives at a lower cost and shorter time than other forms of aid, according to the World Bank.[54] The Copenhagen Consensus, which look at a variety of development proposals, ranked micronutrient supplements as number one.[4][55] However, roughly $300m of aid goes to basic nutrition each year, less than $2 for each child below two in the 20 worst affected countries.[3] In contrast, HIV/AIDS, which causes fewer deaths than child malnutrition, received $2.2 billion—$67 per person with HIV in all countries.[3]
[edit]Emergency measures
Micronutrients can be obtained through fortifying foods.[4] Fortifying foods such as peanut butter sachets (see Plumpy'Nut) and Spirulina have revolutionized emergency feeding in humanitarian emergencies because they can be eaten directly from the packet, do not require refrigeration or mixing with scarce clean water, can be stored for years and, vitally, can be absorbed by extremely ill children.[5] The United Nations World Food Conference of 1974 declared Spirulina as 'the best food for the future' and its ready harvest every 24 hours make it a potent tool to eradicate malnutrition. Additionally, supplements, such as Vitamin A capsules or Zinc tablets to cure diarrhea in children, are used.[6]
There is a growing realization among aid groups that giving cash or cash vouchers instead of food is a cheaper, faster, and more efficient way to deliver help to the hungry, particularly in areas where food is available but unaffordable.[7] The UN's World Food Program, the biggest non-governmental distributor of food, announced that it will begin distributing cash and vouchers instead of food in some areas, which Josette Sheeran, the WFP's executive director, described as a "revolution" in food aid.[7][8] The aid agency Concern Worldwide is piloting a method through a mobile phone operator, Safaricom, which runs a money transfer program that allows cash to be sent from one part of the country to another.[7]
However, for people in a drought living a long way from and with limited access to markets, delivering food may be the most appropriate way to help.[7] Fred Cuny stated that "the chances of saving lives at the outset of a relief operation are greatly reduced when food is imported. By the time it arrives in the country and gets to people, many will have died."[56] US Law, which requires buying food at home rather than where the hungry live, is inefficient because approximately half of what is spent goes for transport.[55] Fred Cuny further pointed out "studies of every recent famine have shown that food was available in-country — though not always in the immediate food deficit area" and "even though by local standards the prices are too high for the poor to purchase it, it would usually be cheaper for a donor to buy the hoarded food at the inflated price than to import it from abroad."[57] Ethiopia has been pioneering a program that has now become part of the World Bank's prescribed recipe for coping with a food crisis and had been seen by aid organizations as a model of how to best help hungry nations. Through the country's main food assistance program, the Productive Safety Net Program, Ethiopia has been giving rural residents who are chronically short of food, a chance to work for food or cash. Foreign aid organizations like the World Food Program were then able to buy food locally from surplus areas to distribute in areas with a shortage of food.[58] Not only has Ethiopia been pioneering a program but Brazil has also established a recycling program for organic waste that benefits farmers, urban poor, and the city in general. City residents separate organic waste from their garbage, bag it, and then exchange it for fresh fruit and vegetables from local farmers. As a result, this reduces its countries waste and the urban poor get a steady supply of nutritious food.[35]
[edit]Long-term measures
Main article: food security
The effort to bring modern agricultural techniques found in the West, such as nitrogen fertilizers and pesticides, to Asia, called the Green Revolution, resulted in decreases in malnutrition similar to those seen earlier in Western nations. This was possible because of existing infrastructure and institutions that are in short supply in Africa, such as a system of roads or public seed companies that made seeds available.[59] Investments in agriculture, such as subsidized fertilizers and seeds, increases food harvest and reduces food prices.[13][60] For example, in the case of Malawi, almost five million of its 13 million people used to need emergency food aid. However, after the government changed policy and subsidies for fertilizer and seed were introduced against World Bank strictures, farmers produced record-breaking corn harvests as production leaped to 3.4 million in 2007 from 1.2 million in 2005, making Malawi a major food exporter.[13] This lowered food prices and increased wages for farm workers.[13] Proponents for investing in agriculture include Jeffrey Sachs, who has championed the idea that wealthy countries should invest in fertilizer and seed for Africa’s farmers.[10][13]
Breast-feeding education helps. Breastfeeding in the first two years and exclusive breastfeeding in the first six months could save 1.3 million children’s lives.[61] In the longer term, firms are trying to fortify everyday foods with micronutrients that can be sold to consumers such as wheat flour for Beladi bread in Egypt or fish sauce in Vietnam and the iodization of salt.[5]
Restricting population size is a proposed solution. Thomas Malthus argued that population growth could be controlled by natural disasters and voluntary limits through “moral restraint.”[62] Robert Chapman suggests that an intervention through government policies is a necessary ingredient of curtailing global population growth.[63] However, there are many who believe that the world has more than enough resources to sustain its population. Instead, these theorists point to unequal distribution of resources and under- or unutilized arable land as the cause for malnutrition problems.[64][65] For example, Amaryta Sen advocates that, “no matter how a famine is caused, methods of breaking it call for a large supply of food in the public distribution system. This applies not only to organizing rationing and control, but also to undertaking work programmes and other methods of increasing purchasing power for those hit by shifts in exchange entitlements in a general inflationary situation.”[40] One suggested policy framework to resolve access issues is termed food sovereignty, the right of peoples to define their own food, agriculture, livestock, and fisheries systems in contrast to having food largely subjected to international market forces. Food First is one of the primary think tanks working to build support for food sovereignty. Neoliberals advocate for an increasing role of the free market. Another possible long term solution would be to increase access to health facilities to rural parts of the world. These facilities could monitor undernourished children, act as supplemental food distribution centers, and provide education on dietary needs. These types of facilities have already proven very successful in countries such as Peru and Ghana.[66][67] New technology in agricultural production also has great potential to combat under nutrition.[68] By improving agricultural yields, farmers could reduce poverty by increasing income as well as open up area for diversification of crops for household use. The World Bank itself claims to be part of the solution to malnutrition, asserting that the best way for countries to succeed in breaking the cycle of poverty and malnutrition is to build export-led economies that will give them the financial means to buy foodstuffs on the world market.
When aiming to prevent rather than treat overeating, which is also a form of malnutrition, starting in the school environment would be the perfect place as this is where the education children receive today will help them choose healthier foods during childhood, as well as into adulthood. As seen in Singapore, if we increase nutrition in school lunch programs and physical activity for children and teachers, obesity can be reduced by almost 30–50%
Diversification
Farm diversification is when a farm branches out from traditional farming by adding new money making activities. This can be in place of or in addition to its traditional farming pursuits. Farm diversification can involve anything, from adding pastured poultry and organic beef production to starting a bed and breakfast in the barn or setting up a local tourist attraction. In short farm diversification usually involves a shift from traditional farming activities into non farm projects.
When considering what to diversify into many farmers find it helpful to consider:
Under used resources - many farms have unused buildings and farm resources. Farms that successfully diversify are often able to put their existing farm assets to use. Making a list of your existing farm under utilised resources is a useful first step in working out potential ideas.
Unfilled local demand - being able to meet a local demand for a product or service that is not currently being met may offer an opportunity to broaden your farms horizons into new business areas.
Existing skills and expertise - playing to your existing farming experience and knowledge increases your likelihood of success. It also makes it easier to make the transition from traditional farm to rural enterprise.
Area of interest - make a note of any business ideas that interest you. Following up on these means that you're more likely to put in the extra hours and effort required to make your rural enterprise a success.
When considering what to diversify into many farmers find it helpful to consider:
Under used resources - many farms have unused buildings and farm resources. Farms that successfully diversify are often able to put their existing farm assets to use. Making a list of your existing farm under utilised resources is a useful first step in working out potential ideas.
Unfilled local demand - being able to meet a local demand for a product or service that is not currently being met may offer an opportunity to broaden your farms horizons into new business areas.
Existing skills and expertise - playing to your existing farming experience and knowledge increases your likelihood of success. It also makes it easier to make the transition from traditional farm to rural enterprise.
Area of interest - make a note of any business ideas that interest you. Following up on these means that you're more likely to put in the extra hours and effort required to make your rural enterprise a success.
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